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Summary:

Since 1978 the Australian Government has provided financial and technical assistance to His Majesty's Government of Nepal to establish nearly 22,000 hectares of Pinus plantations on previously degraded land in Sindhu Palchok and Kabhre Palanchok. Commencing from 1994 the management of these plantations is being transferred to local communities, organised into Forest User Groups (FUGs) to give them access to plantation products for their use. Crop production, animal husbandry and forestry are, traditionally, closely integrated components of the hill agriculture system in Nepal. Forest litter or foliage is used as bedding material and feed for livestock, after which it is converted to farmyard manure (FYM) and subsequently used on cropland as a source of plant nutrients. Therefore, the forest conditions and availability of forest products greatly affect the livestock and crop production in the hills and the community as a whole.
This study, which was undertaken at Gaurati (Pinus patula) and Chakrapal (broadleaf) in Sindhu Palchok district, and at Thulopakha (Pinus roxburghii) and Saradadevi (broadleaf) in Kabhre Palanchok district, was undertaken in response to claims from district stakeholders that the pine plantations, and products obtained from these plantations, were having a detrimental impact on animal health, soil pH and fertility, and on water courses. During the study, stakeholders were interviewed, soil samples were tested from localities within the study sites, and other field data obtained during field surveys. In addition, secondary information was obtained from the literature.
No evidence was found to verify most of the claims made by the stakeholders.
Specifically six issues were examined:

•	A number of farmers had reported that the use of pine needles as bedding material had resulted in allergy-type blisters on a number of buffaloes three years prior to the study being undertaken. There has been no incidence of these symptoms since then. Veterinary officers reported that such problems had been observed in a number of areas, irrespective of the type of bedding material used. It was therefore concluded that pine needles used as bedding material did not affect animal health and that other factors may have caused the symptoms.
•	Regeneration of broadleaved species under Pinus was reported to be poor compared with natural forest. This observation was confirmed during the survey. It was also found that the amount of canopy closure and litter on the floor affected the amount of regeneration, as did the soil moisture and structure. It was concluded that regeneration of broadleaved species could be improved through silvicultural management.
•	It had been claimed that the use of pine needles in FYM increased the acidity of the soil in cropland. However, no significant differences in acidity could be shown between samples obtained from natural forests, pine plantations and the adjacent agricultural land. Thus it was concluded that pine needles had not affected soil acidity in the two districts. Based on the literature, it was postulated that intensive use of chemical fertilisers together with intensive cropping posed a greater threat to increases in acidity.
•	Declining fertility of cropland had partly been attributed to the proximity of pine forests. However, an analysis of major nutrients in the various soil samples showed no significant differences between the two forest types and adjacent agricultural land. It was not possible to determine whether overall fertility of bari land was declining, although it was postulated that improper application of chemical fertilisers, intensive cropping and soil erosion could all contribute to such a decline.
•	It was claimed that the use of pine needles as FYM in bari lands led to an increase in the incidence of white grub and termites. However, there was no evidence to substantiate this claim, as it was found that termites and white grub were present in undecomposed bedding material from any source. It was recommended that compost should be well decomposed before being used in the fields. It was further recommended that some work could be undertaken to determine how the decomposition process could be speeded up.
•	Many FUG members and others had suggested that pine plantations dried natural springs. No evidence could be found to support this claim.